Biology Notes

Sunday, January 24, 2010

Exam Review - multiple choice

Part A - Multiple Choice (knowledge) - 70 marks

Aerobic Cellular Respiration - Uses oxygen to break down glucose, produces 36 ATP in eukaryotic cells and 38 in prokaryotic cells.
In cellular respiration, glucose first goes through the process of glycolysis producing 2NADH, 2ATP and 2 molecules of Pyruvate. The two pyruvate molecules go through pyruvate oxidation and produce 2CO2 molecules and 2 more NADH and create two molecules of Acetyl-CoA. This molecule combines with oxaloacetate as it enters the Kreb's cycle. The Krebs cycle results in 2ATP, 4CO2, 2FADH2 and 6NADH molecules being created.
See Above order
Metabolic Pathways include: Glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation
then molecules move in the the cyclic pathway called the Krebs cycle and then products from the above are used in the ETC (electron transport chain)
Oxidative Phosphorolation - Creation of ATP with the presence of O2 by oxidative and reduction reactions.
DNA's ability to unzip allows the process of DNA replication to take place. This allows information to be coppied and used for purposes such as cell devision, protein synthesis, etc...
Types of nucleotides/Nitrogen bases are:
Double Ringed Single Ring
1) Purines - Adenine and Guanine 2) Pyrimidines - Thymine and Cytosine
-In RNA, Uracil replaces Thymine
1 Glucose molecule Produces the following :
-Glycolysis :2ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
-Pyruvate Oxidation: 2CO2, 2NADH, 2 Acetyl-CoA
-Krebs Cycle: 4CO2, 2ATP, 6NADH, 2FADH2

4ATP from substrate phosphorolation
32 fron Oxidative phosphorolation
ATP is the cellular form of energy. Glucose is converted into glycogen in animals and starch in plants for energy storage. Glycogen can also be converted into fats for longterm storage.
Photosynthesis works most effectivly with Blue and Red-Orange light. Chlorophyll doesn't absorb any green light and this is why plants that are photosynthesizing are green (light is reflected)
The calvin cycle is the dark reactions of photosynthesis (also known as carbon fixation). it takes three carbon molecules and produces G3P (glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate) which can be converted into glucose, sucrose, starch. This process uses products (NADPH and ATP) from the light reactions of photosynthesis to form the G3P molecules.
See Part B --> #5
See Part B --> #5
See Part A --> #11
See Part A --> #11
A DNA molecule is a polymer consisting of monomers known as nucleotides. The DNA molecule is helical in structure and has two strad going in opposite direction. The monomers consist of a Deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group and 1/4 nitrogen bases.
See Part B --> #8
See Part A --> #16,
See Part A --> #16,
DNA molecules run from 5' To 3', At the 5' end there is a Phosphate group and the 3' a Deoxyribose sugar. The two strands of DNA making the molecule run in opposite direction. The Nitrogen baseses hold the two opposite strands together in the middle.
See Part B --> #20
Leading Strand - New strand of DNA that is synthesized continuously during DNA replication.
Lagging Strand - New strand of DNA that is synthesized in small sections, known as okazaki fragments, that are later joined together.
Protein synthesis.

1- DNA(code) used as a template for production of mRNA(codon). (Transcription)
2- modifications to mRNA allow it to survive outside of the nucleus (5' Cap and poly-A-Tail, Introns removed from the DNA code) (post transcriptional modifications)
3- Ribosome reads mRNA (Codon) and makes a tRNA (anticodon) to retreive a specific amino acid (translation)
4-Protein is built by amino acids being delivered to the A-site (acceptor), then joining them together at the p-site (peptide) to create a polypeptide chain (a protein)
Mutations During Protein Synthesis:
1) Silent Mutation - No negative effect to the organism (same amino acid coded for by accident with different nitrogen bases as the code being used)
2)Missence Mutation - Single substitution of any amino acid, changing the protein. singel nitrogen base could be changed.
3)Nonsence Mutation - Change in sequence causing a stop codon to occur to early. Only part of the desired protein is created, can be lethal.
See Part A --> #23
See Part A --> #23
See Part A --> #23
See Part A --> #23
Code - found on DNA - origional nitrogen bases
Codon - found on mRNA - complimentry to the code, uses uracil rather than thymine
Anticodon - found on tRNA - complimentry to codon, same as code but uses uracil rather than thymine.
eukaryotes: Membrane bound organelles, DNA is double stranded, containing introns, DNA is replicated at many points simutaneously
prokaryotes: No membrane, DNA-plasmid ring, no introns, transcription translation happen at same time, eukaryotic DNA is replicated in only one place.
The kidney filters impurities from the circulatory system (urea and ureic acid). it also maintains water balance in the body and removes water from the system. The waste is composed of these things, everyting else is ment to be reabsorbed into the blood stream.
See Part A --> #31
Homeostasis - Process by which a constant internal enviornment is maintained dispite changes in the external enviornment.
De-amination fo aminoacids creates a deadly toxin known as amonia. This amonia is changed imidiatly into urea or ureic acid to safely be removed from youre body. The kidney is responsible for removing this nitrogen waste from youre body.
See Part A --> #31
Active transport - The movement of materials with the consumption of energy by cells. ex, Na+ pumps in the nephron to remove sodium and chlorine from the waste material being filtered out of the body.
ADH - Antidiaretic ormone - causes kidneys to increase water absorbtion, maintains water balance in the body. This hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland and is produced by the hypothalamus.
Hormones - Chemicals released by the body that effect cells in other parts of the body (message system between cells)
Hypothalamus - region of the vertibrates brain that is responsible for coordinating many nerve and hormone functions.
Female reproductive cycle - 28 day cycle
1) Flow Phase - aprox. 5days
2) Follicular Phase (folicle develops) - 8days
3)ovulation (oogenisis) occurs on the 14th day - produces 1 mature folicle and 999 folicle cells that produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone (corpus Luteum) -1day
4)Luteral Phase - Lining of the uterus prepares to recieve a fertilised egg. aprox 14days
Adrenaline - The flight of fight hormone, increases blood flow to the muscles, prepares the body incase of emergency. Increased sences, responce time, strength, endurance, etc...
Chemical Synapse - the nerve impulse eventualy reaches the end of the axon and must cross to another neuron. The gap between the end of the axon and the dendrite of another neuron is called the synapse. Acetylcholine bridges the gap and another enzyme destroys this to stop the bridging.
Autonomic nervous system - controls the parts of the body that act without our thinking. For example, stomach, intestines and glands. This system helps to prepare the body in case of emergency and returns the body to a normal state after.
Action Potential - A stimulus causes a neuron to fire an action potential ( sending information ) to create a responce to the stimulus
1)Carl Linnaeus proposed that relatively few species had formed many new species through hybridization and interbreeding. founder of biological nomenclature.
2)Gregor Mendel was a priest and scientist that discovered the passing on of traits from one generation to another which he called alleles. Discovered that some are dominant and others are receive.
3)Charles Darwin created the theory that all species of life have evolved or come from common ancestors. He spent a 5 year voyage on the H.M.S beagle and wrote a book supporting his ideas.
4)Lamark was the first scientist to recognize that the environment plays a key role in the evolution of species. He further postulated the theory of inheritance of acquired traits. Believed that internal desires caused a species to change and evolve over time. Flawed because genetic makeup was not actualy changed.
5)Malthus postulated that in nature both plants and animals produce far more offspring than are able to survive. He wrote the essay on the principle of population.
6)Lyell was the geologist that sugested the same things have been happening to the earth for many many years.
See Part A --> #46
An adaptation is a trait an organism aquires that will help it to survive more effectivly in its enviornment.
See Part A --> #46
Thomas Malthus' essay stated that plants and animals produced more offspring than the habitat could suport and this caused competition in the natural world.
Evidince of evolution can be seen in fossils by comparing modern animals to aincent relatives whose bones have been preserved.
See Part B --> #11
Heterozygous - Mixture of dominant and recessive alleles
Homozygous - 2 of the same alleles , weather both recessive or both dominant.
Genome: All of the genetic information, the entire genetic complement, all of the hereditary material possessed by an organism.
Phenotype - the visual or physically seen characteristic due to the genotype or makeup of alleles in an organism.
Gene Pool - The collective genetic information contained within a population of sexually reproducing.
Genotype frequency - how often a specific genotype is occuring in a population. Expressed by the hardy-weinburg equation

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
Genetic Drift - Random change in allele frequencies through generations due to chance events. founders effect and bottle neck scenarios are extreme cases.
Gene Flow - physical flow of alleles that occurs due to immigration and emigration. This keeps neighboring populations similar. Counters mutation, genetic drift and natural selection.
See Part B --> #9
Estimating population size can be done in two ways:
1)Quadrant study - An area is measured and the number of organisms living in that area divided by the area multiplied by the total area of the habitat is the total population size.
2)Mark - Recapture - compares proportion of marked and unmarked animals. See Part C --> #3
See Part B --> #12
Carrying Capacity - maximum number of organisms that can be substained by available resources. This is a dynamic measurement.
See Part C --> #3
See Part C --> #3
Population Density - the number of organisms per unit area.
For an organism to grow, it must have charecteristics allowing it to survive in its enviornment. The habitat must have enough resources to supply the organism. The organism must be able to avoid predatation, and compete with other organisms in the same area.
Formula to calculate somthing from the unit?
Open Population - Changes in number and density is determined by births, deaths, emigration and imigration.

Closed Population - Change is determined by natality and mortality alone
Factors effecting population size:
1) Competition
2) Predidation
3)Diseases

Population Growth:
1)Births and deaths
2)imigragion and emigration
3)Fecundity - Potential for a species to produce offspring in one lifetime.

Good Luck!
-Brandon

Saturday, January 23, 2010

Monday, January 4, 2010

Chapter 11 Test review

Part A - True and False

Evolution - change in the genetic material of a population of organisms through successive generations. In other words, an orgainism adapting over time in a way that is beneficial.
Adaptation - a change made over time in an organism allowing it to better survive in its environment.
Homologous Features - Structures that share a common origin but may serve different functions in modern species. For example, flippers and human hands.
Analogous Features - Structures similar in function but not in origin or anatomical structure. For example, wings of birds and bees.
Vestigial Features - Rudimentary and non functioning structures that are homologous to fully functioning structures in closely related species.
Reproductive Isolation Mechanism - Any behavioral, structural or biochemical trait that prevents individuals of different species from reproducing with one another. These can include factors from the environment or the species itself.
See Part A-True and False number 3.

Part A - Multiple Choice
See Part A-True and False number 2.
Carl Linnaeus proposed that relatively few species had formed many new species through hybridization and interbreeding. He was also the founder of biological nomenclature.
Gregor Mendel was a priest and scientist that discovered the passing on of traits from one generation to another which he called alleles. Discovered that some are dominant and others are receive. Can be considered the start or base to many evolution theories.
Charles Darwin created the theory that all species of life have evolved or come from common ancestors. He spent a 5 year voyage on the H.M.S beagle and wrote a book supporting his ideas.
Lamark was the first scientist to recognize that the environment plays a key role in the evolution of species. He further postulated the theory of inheritance of acquired traits. Believed that internal desires caused a species to change and evolve over time.
Malthus postulated that in nature both plants and animals produce far more offspring than are able to survive. He wrote the essay on the principle of population.
Adaptations that are most desired in nature are ones that allow an organism or species to survive better in its environment. When an offspring survives with positive characteristics, they will then be passed onto the next generation and the species is undergoing evolution.
We can find evidence of evolution in fossils of animals of the past that seem very similar to animals living in the present. The animals of today have changed and adapted over time to better survive.
Lamarks theory is considered a flawed statement because he states that new species were created by spontaneous genetration or the idea that living organisms arise from non living matter, which was proven to be untrue.
See Part A-True and False number 1.
See package 17 (from grade 13 old Bio textbook)
Biogeography
The principles of geology, written by lyell, suggest that Earth had undergone and continues to undergo slow, steady, and very gradual changes.
The idea that populations outgrow resources was introduced by: Thomas Malthus
Essay on the Principle of Population, written by Thomas Malthus

Part B - Short Answer

According to Lamark, the giraffe's desire to reach above the competition created "fluida" and caused the necks of the animals to lengthen. Because the girafes with longer necks were able to survive better than the ones that couldn't reach the higher leaves, this trait was passed on and thus the population of the giraffes evolved overtime to the size they are today. Darwin states that in every species there are individuals that show different charecteristics. The giraffes with longer necks would survive during times with small amounts of food available. thus these individuals would pass the trait to the next generation, causing the population to grow over time.
See Part A-True and False number 3.
Darwin concluded that creatures with analogous features most likely came from different descent while creatures with homologous features most likely did come from the same descent.
Fossils - Any preserved remains or traces of an organism or its activity; many fossils are of such hardened body parts such as bone. Fossils of organisms from the past can be compared to modern organisms to support evolution.
Cuvier is the respected anatomist that began the systematic study of fossils, also known as palaeontology. He discovered that many fossils were of extinct species. He found that different layers of sedimentary rock contained different species, more complex species seemed to be closer to the surface.
See Part A-True and False number 10.
See Part A-True and False number 11.
Vestigial Features - Rudimentary and non functioning structures that are homologous to fully functioning structures in closely related species. These have no use for the present individual but remain through evolution from a time when they were once used. for example, modern whales have hip bones and a femour even though no weight is transferred to hind legs. this suggests that at one time these whales had legs.

Part C - Paragraph Questions

It is possible for two similar locations to have different organisms living in the area because through evolution, internal factors as well as enviornmental factors worked to create variation even within similar species depending on where they live. Many factors contribute to an organisms sucess at survival within an ecosystem. The organism must servive by making changes or addapting to its enviornment. Adaptations eventualy lead to evolution within a population. Over extended periods of time, the organisms may change so much that they are no longer reconisable as being similar, an example being whales origionaly being animals with hind legs, possibly land living.
Darwin relied on scientists such as
- Thomas Malthus - postulated that in nature both plants and animals produce far more offspring than are able to survive. He wrote the essay on the principle of population.
- Gregor Mendel - was a priest and scientist that discovered the passing on of traits from one generation to another which he called alleles. Discovered that some are dominant and others are receive. Can be considered the start or base to many evolution theories.
- Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck - Was the first scientist to recognize that the enviornment plays a key role in the evolution of species. He further postulated the theory of inheritance of acquired traits.

Sunday, January 3, 2010

14.1 Charecteristics of Populations

Definitions:

Habitat - the place where an organism or species normally lives.
Species - organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry and genetic makeup, and that interbreed or have the ability to interbreed, with one another under normal conditions to produce fertile offspring.
Population Size - the numbers of individuals of a specific species occupuying a given area or volume at a specific time.
Population Density - The number of individuals of the same species that occur per unit area or volume. The formula for this is Density (D) = total numbers (N) / Space (S)
Population Dispersion - The general pattern in which individuals are distributed through a specified area.
Clumped Dispersion - The pattern in which individuals in a population are more concentrated in certain parts of a habitat.
Uniform Dispersion - The patter in which individuals in a population are equally spaced throughout a habitat.
Random Dispersion - The pattern in which individuals are spread throughout a habitat in an unpredictable and patternless manner.

questions

1. D = N/S
D = 34/200
D = 0.17 turtles per ha

2.Areas in the park that are not used by the painted turtles may have conditions that make them inhabitable for the species.

3.assuming they cant use 40% of available space in the park, the ecological density would be

=34turtles / (200-(40% of 200))
=34/(200-80)
=34/120
=0.333 turtles/usable hectare in the park

Page 653

Definitions:

Quadrat - A sampling frame used for estimation population size; these can be real or virtual
Mark - recapture method - sampling technique used for estimating population size and density by comparing the proportion of marked and unmarked animals captured in a given area; some times called capture-recapture

See sample problems on pages 654 - 656

Page 654
4.

total number of slugs / number of quadrants = population density
4+8+9+5+1 / 5 quadrants (each 1.0m^2) = population density
27/5 =population density
so the population density of slugs is 5.4slugs/m^2

Page 657
5.a)

Population = ((total marked)(population recaptured)) / recaptured marked salmon
population = (430)(154) / 15
population = 4414.666667

therefore the estimated population is 4415 in this river

b) correct amount of time, location where testing occurs, etc...

Wednesday, December 9, 2009

Chapter 7 Test review

Part B

Homeostasis - Process by which a constant internal enviornment is maintained dispite changes in the external enviornment. For example, sweating to maintain the bodies functional temperature range while excercising.
Negative - Mechanisms that bring the body back to normal ranges
Positive - Process by which a small affect is amplified.
Negative feedback systems are most preferred in the body.
The Kidney: Removes excess waste
Maintains water balance
Deamination of proteins causes ammonia to be produced. This ammonia combines with CO2 to form urea which is much less harmful to humans and can be transported safely through the body.
a molecule will take the following path while being removed from the body:

1)Circulatory system
2)Renal Artery
3)Nephron (first glomerulus then into bowman's capsule)
4)Proximal Tubule
5)Descending limb of loop of henule
6)Ascending limb " " " "
7)Distal Tubule
8)Collecting duct
9)Bladder
10)Urethra
It is benifitial to have 2 kidneys because a greater amount of blood can be filtered per minute. Also, if one kidney is damaged or not working at full efficientcy, you can still survive because your blood is still being filtered by the other kidney.
Many mitochondria are needed in the cells of the proximal tubule in order to supply energy for the active transport of sodium ions out of the tubule.
Having high blood pressure can cause damage to the blood vessels in the kidneys. They may stop removing waste and water from the body properly and this can cause kidney failure. Urine will form faster as a high pressure from the arteries will force water out of your system not being reabsorbed properly.

Part C

After a kidney failure, the most effective treatment option is to have a kidney transplant. Today, these are about 85% sucessful. Medical implications include- finding a matching donor, complications during the procedure, the time taken to do the procedure, the chance of the body rejecting the new kidney by recognising it as a forign invader (this is why immunosupresive drugs are given to transplant patients). Social implications: life expectancy changing by donating or recieving a kidney, because of long waiting list for kidney donor, blackmarket of the bodypart (sold for a profit rather than a donation).
The Formation of Urine:

1)Filtration - Process by which blood or bodily fluids pass through a selectivley permeable membrane.
2)Re-absorption - Transfer of glomerular filtrate from the nephron back into capillaries.
3)Secretion - Movement of materials from the blood to the distal tubule. Products such as ammonia and some drugs.

Discuss

Part D

Refer to pages 346, 347(worksheet 7.4) and350

Part A

A patient with renal problems would find a high concentration of waste products in their blood because the kidneys arent functioning properly.
unknown substances found in bowmans capsule and urine : possibilities = anything in blood other than enthrocytes (red and white blood cells) proteins and platelets
Refer to Part A #2
blood filtrate is composed of : water, Na, Cl, glucose, amino acids, hydrogen ions, CO2, Carbonate, etc...
Refer to Part A #4
Organisms adapting to their eniornment.... many possibilities ?
Nitrogen waste comes from the Deamination of amino acids, removing the amine group from the molecule.
The role of the kidney is to filter out waste products and maintain water balance in the body. Nesesary for maintaining homeostasis.
Many possibilities. Anything transported by blood.
Active transport - using cellular energy to move substances around to an area desired (not natural occuring)
When items enter the interstitial fluid, osmotic pressure is created and water from the surounding tubules will enter the spaces between the cells to attempt to adjust the concentration of the solution.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - Causes kidneys to increase water absorbtion.

Causes parts of the kidney to become semipermeable to water and allows the water to move back into the capilaries conserving water rather than loseing it in urine.
Aldosterone - Hormone that increases Na reabsorption from distal tubule and collecting ducts.
Refer to Part A #12
Refer to Part A #12

good luck ;)
-Brandon

Tuesday, December 8, 2009

7.7 Kidney diseases

1) Diabetes Mellitus:

Caused by inadequate secretion of insulin from islet vells in the pancreas
Blood sugar levels rise.
Excess sugar remains in the nephron, it is not filtered back into the circulatory system.
People with this will often urinate a large amount of water because the sugar causes osmotic pressure. This will have to be replenished.
Type 2 diabetes.

2) Diabetes Insipidus:

Caused by destruction of ADH producing cells or nerve tracts between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Without ADH, all 20mL per minute will be urinated and will create a large thirst responce.
Type 1 Diabetes.

3) Bright's Disease:

AKA- Nephrititis
many diseases characterized by inflammation of the nephrons.
Filtration system doesn't work properly and allows proteins to stay in the kidney which causes them to swell with water because there is no mechanism to remove proteins from the kidney.
Increases output of urine.

4) Kidney Stones:

Caused by the percipitation of mineral solutes from the blood.
Two groups: Alkaline and acid stones.
These stones can tear delicate tissues as they move toward the bladder.
can lodge in the urethra and cause alot of pain trying to pass these stones.

Dialysis technology

People that cant properly filter their blood with the use of their own kidneys can use technology to mechanicly filter out impurities and toxins from their blood.

-Brandon

Monday, December 7, 2009

7.6 Water Balance